(2010) study (seven animals) In this task, animals learned the l

(2010) study (seven animals). In this task, animals learned the locations of three new goals where food reward were hidden each day. The animal’s memory performance was assessed before and after the learning (preprobe and the postprobe sessions) and the animals were allowed to sleep before and after the learning in presleep and postsleep sessions (Figure S1). During learning some of the place cells remapped their place fields. Moreover, the successful recall of newly learned goal locations in the postprobe session was associated with the reinstatement of the new place field representations that were developed during learning (Dupret et al., 2010). First, we examined whether spatial learning was accompanied by interneuron

GSK-3 inhibitor firing rate changes as reported during exploration Alectinib of novel environments (Frank et al., 2004; Nitz and McNaughton, 2004; Wilson and McNaughton, 1993). Firing rate changes of interneurons were observed during learning on the cheeseboard maze, and these followed a similar time course to the reorganization of pyramidal cell assemblies. About 25% of interneurons exhibited significant increases in their rate, while an additional 43% showed significant decreases (Figure 1). Such mean rate changes of interneurons were not observed when the animals performed the task without the allocentric learning context where reward locations were indicated by intramaze cues (Figure S2). Since

the behavioral patterns of the animals during the cued and the allocentric conditions were similar, it is unlikely that interneuron rate changes were attributed because to behavioral changes or related factors such as the speed of the animal. Instead, the observed interneuron rate changes might have signaled the formation of new associations to new pyramidal assemblies that were developed during the allocentric learning of reward locations. To test for the development of interneuron associations to new pyramidal assemblies, we examined whether interneuron rates mirrored the dynamic reorganization of pyramidal assemblies during map formation. High-fidelity associations would

require interneurons to fire stronger in time periods when new maps are accurately expressed. In contrast, a negative association may signal that interneurons reduce their firing when the newly formed pyramidal patterns are present. Pyramidal cell assemblies can rapidly switch across theta cycles when certain environmental features are rapidly altered (Jezek et al., 2011). In our analysis we also used theta cycles (5–12 Hz) as time windows to measure the instantaneous firing rate of interneurons and to quantify the firing association of interneurons to pyramidal assembly patterns (Figure 2). The expression of the new maps was assessed in each theta cycle by testing whether the ongoing pyramidal network activity was more similar to the old or the new assembly patterns representing the current location.

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