In all studies performed in Europe where both groups were included, immigrant groups in European countries had significantly lower
serum 25(OH)D concentrations than indigenous European groups [1–4, 25–32]. Determinants In the last column of each table, the determinants for a lower 25(OH)D concentration are presented. As expected, many studies found a lower exposure to sunlight (e.g., behavior or season) [1–3, 13–18, 27, 32–38] or a restricted intake of vitamin D (via food or supplements) [1, 14, 17, 33, 39, 40], to be associated with a lower serum 25(OH)D concentration. Neither gender nor age were unambiguously associated with the serum 25(OH)D concentration. Female gender was found to be a determinant for a low serum 25(OH)D concentration [2, 4, 15, 33, 35, 36, 41, 42], but not in all studies that compared males
and females [3, 19, 20, 31, 41, 43]. Both a younger MK-8669 solubility dmso age [33] and an older age [15, 17] were associated with a lower serum 25(OH)D concentration. Other determinants of lower serum 25(OH)D concentrations—explained by association with exposure to sunlight or dietary habits—are a lower socioeconomic position [34, 42], a shorter duration of education [33, 39], or a lower educational level [14], living in an urban environment [20, 21], and an earlier start time to the workday [44]. In newborn children, a mother’s lower serum 25(OH)D concentration was associated with a lower serum 25(OH)D concentration in the child [18, 45, 46]. Discussion The vitamin D status of Turkish, Moroccan, Indian, Montelukast Sodium and sub-Sahara African immigrant BTK activity inhibition populations in Europe was poor compared to the indigenous European populations. The vitamin D states of studied populations in Turkey, Morocco, and India varied between concentrations similar to the immigrant populations in Europe (low) and concentrations similar to or higher than the European indigenous populations (high). Determinants of the serum 25(OH)D
concentration included both sources of vitamin D: exposure to sunlight and intake of vitamin D. Gender and age were each associated with serum 25(OH)D concentration in both directions. Differences according to gender and age group could be the result of biological differences but might also reflect behavioral differences; dress style (e.g., wearing a veil) is often mentioned as a reason for a higher prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among women than men. A lower serum 25(OH)D concentration among older participants can partly be the result of the lower capacity of the skin to produce vitamin D after exposure to sunlight. The study that found lower serum 25(OH)D concentrations at younger ages [33] might have had a study population that was too young to find an effect of a lower skin capacity (their mean age was below 40 years).