Early, during S-R, learning striatum activity was an earlier pred

Early, during S-R, learning striatum activity was an earlier predictor of the corresponding saccade (Figure 3C). However, as the number of exemplars exceeded the capacity of S-R learning and animals had to learn the categories, the PFC took over and began predicting the saccade before the striatum (Figure 3C) This dual-learner strategy allows the animal to perform #blog of sinaling pathways keyword# optimally throughout the task; early

on the striatum can learn associations quickly, while later in the task, when learning associations is no longer viable, PFC guides behavior. Figure 3. Specific vs generalized learning in basal ganglia vs prefrontal cortex. (A) Category-response association task. Animals were presented with a cue stimulus (an array of dots) that were exemplar stimuli created by morphing stimuli from one of two category … Primates, especially humans, can learn a wide range of abstract categories like Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical “peace.” But truly intelligent behavior depends on more than

finding high-level structure across experiences. Humans can be creative and unique in finding new goals and strategies to pursue them. This means that the mechanisms that build the PFC rule representations must have a corresponding ability for open-ended Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical growth. Another aspect of PFCBG interactions may explain this. Anatomical loops between them may support recursive, bootstrapping interactions. Recursivity and bootstrapping The anatomical connections between the PFC and BG suggest “bootstrapping,” the process of building increasingly complex representations from simpler ones. The Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical PFC and the BG form closed loops: channels within the BG return outputs, via the thalamus, into the same cortical areas that gave rise to their initial cortical input. This suggests some form of recursive processing.23,24 That is, the neural representations that result from plasticity within and between the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical PFC and BG form cortical representations that can be fed back into the loop as fodder for further elaboration. In this manner, new experiences can be added onto previous ones, linking in more information

to build more elaborate rule representations. It can allow the discovery of selleck products commonalities among Carfilzomib more experiences and thus more high-level concepts and principles. Indeed, we often ground new concepts in familiar ones because it seems to ease our understanding of novel ideas; we learn multiplication by serial addition, exponentiation by serial multiplication, etc. The frontal cortex-BG loops also suggest an auto-associative type network, similar to that seen in the CA3 cell layer of the hippocampus. The looping back of outputs allow the network to learn to complete (ie, recall) previously learned patterns given a degraded version or a subset of the original inputs.31 Given the DA influence, the PFC-BG loops may be more goal-oriented (supervised) than hippocampal learning and memory. They could even explain the DA reward prediction signals.

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